Ritual Paper Offerings in the Mother Goddess Temples

In recent years, the Đạo Mẫu (Mother Goddess) belief has flourished widely, extending from rural to urban areas, from the lowlands to the mountains. Along with this growth, numerous rituals, festivals, and other cultural activities have arisen, persisted, and developed, shaping a diverse, rich, and vibrant cultural landscape that contributes to the enrichment of national identity and traditional values. Within the ritual system of the Mother Goddess worship, paper offerings (đồ mã) are essential and indispensable votive objects. In the Điện Mẫu (Mother Goddess temple), these votive items are divided into two types: those used on a regular basis, and those specifically prepared for major ceremonies. Within the scope of this paper, we shall focus on the second category — paper offerings prepared for ritual purposes.

Like all other religious traditions, Đạo Mẫu involves a wide range of rituals, including annual major festivals as well as other ceremonies such as mở phủ (initiation to mediumship) or mừng đồng (celebration of a newly ordained medium). In all of these forms of ritual, paper offerings play a crucial role.

The Phát Tấu ritual is usually conducted on the day prior to, or immediately before, any major ceremony within the Mother Goddess system. However, the person presiding over this ritual need not necessarily be a medium (ông/bà đồng); it may also be conducted by a thầy cúng (ritual master).

The Phát Tấu ceremony carries the meaning of inviting the deities and Buddhas to descend and witness the altar ceremony — either to consecrate a new medium (tân đồng), who becomes a “servant” or “seat” (ghế đệm) for the deities of the Four Palaces (Tứ Phủ), or to bless ceremonies for Tam phủ thục mệnh that resolve misfortunes, illness, or karmic obstacles.

The paper offerings used in this ritual include a set of ceremonial hats (mũ phát tấu) — five hats in five colors representing the five cardinal directions: East, West, South, North, and Center. Accompanying these are five small paper horses, each about fifty centimeters high, five sets of clothing, and five pairs of Gia Định-style shoes or ceremonial boots (hia). The color of each object corresponds to the color of its respective hat.

All these paper offerings are presented to the official messengers (quan sứ giả), inviting them or the officiating medium to go forth and summon the deities of the Four Palaces.

Paper Offerings in the Rituals of the Four Palaces (Tứ Phủ)

Those who are said to possess a căn đồng số lính — a “mediumistic calling” or “spiritual predestination,” as practitioners of hầu bóng (spirit possession) describe it — often display distinctive temperaments and unusual behaviors. They tend to prefer bold, primary colors and ritual paraphernalia; they may experience inexplicable illnesses that do not respond to medicine. When no cure can be found, they seek the aid of temples and shrines, turning to ritual masters to prepare the offerings and ceremonies required by the spirits.

The căn (spiritual calling) varies in degree — heavy or light — and each level entails its own ritual of presentation to the deities. Typically, the sequence of ceremonies follows the traditional order: first đội bát hương (receiving the incense bowl), then trình lính (presentation of spiritual soldiers), followed by trình đồng mở phủ (initiation and opening of the spiritual palace), or alternatively tiễn căn, trình giầu, and finally, about three years later, tái phủ mừng đồng (reaffirmation ceremony celebrating the initiated medium).

In all Tứ Phủ ceremonies, one indispensable offering is the display of paper effigies (dàn mã). These sets of votive paper offerings tend to be largely similar in composition. First and foremost are the ceremonial hats (mũ), including:

Four mũ bình thiên in four colors — red, blue, white, and yellow — offered to the Four Heavenly Kings (Tứ vị vua cha).

Two hats for the attending officers Nam Tào and Bắc Đẩu, celestial record-keepers of life and death. These are winged hats (mũ cánh chuồn): one red and one purple.

The hat of the presiding officer (mũ chúa đàn), who oversees and supervises the ceremony, usually styled as a pheasant-tail hat (mũ đuôi trĩ) in white or yellow, depending on the celebrant’s destiny and the month in which the ritual occurs.

Next are five winged hats (mũ cánh chuồn) in five colors — red, blue, white, yellow, and purple — offered to the Five Palace Officers (Ngũ vị quan lớn):

1. Quan Đệ Nhất — Supreme Lord of Heaven (Thượng Thiên),

2. Quan Đệ Nhị — Supervisor of the High Mountains (Giám sát Thượng Ngàn),

3. Quan Đệ Tam — Lord of the Water Palace (Thoải Phủ), known as Quan Tuần Lảnh Giang,

4. Quan Đệ Tứ — Imperial Envoy (Khâm Sai),

5. Quan Đệ Ngũ — Lord Tuần Tranh of the Ninh Giang–Hải Dương region.

Below the Five Officers’ hats are placed those of the local and annual guardian spirits (đương niên, đương cảnh), depending on which deity presides over that particular year. Beneath them is the dragon-embroidered hat set (mũ rồng), representing the Nine Stars and Eight Trigrams; its colors correspond to the respective celestial tablets (bài vị các sao).

In addition, if the medium’s spiritual lineage (căn) belongs to the Trần Triều (the Trần Dynasty pantheon) but he or she has not yet received permission to serve the Trần spirits — which may occur only after three years of initiation — it is customary to offer one thousand gold papers and a red hat dedicated to the Great General of the Trần pantheon, Đức Đại Tướng Trần Triều Long Tu.

Among the obligatory votive items are Long tu, Tượng, and Mã — the dragon boat, elephant, and horse effigies — which are always included in the display. These figures are usually made on a large scale as an expression of reverence toward the deities. Their external designs and decorative motifs are elaborate, making them strikingly lifelike. The elephant is generally made of yellow paper, the horse of red paper, and the dragon boat of white.

These items are not dedicated to any specific deity but collectively offered to all the officers and deities. Symbolically, the dragon boat represents the Water Palace (Thủy Phủ), the elephant signifies the Mountain Domain (Sơn Trang), and the horse corresponds to the lowland realm (Đồng Bằng). Yet some traditions interpret differently: the elephant is offered to Chúa Sơn Lâm (Lord of the Forests), the horse to Đức Thánh Trần (Saint Trần Hưng Đạo), and the dragon boat to Vua Cha Bát Hải (the Father King of the Seas).

Additional votive items include rafts (mảng) — a green raft dedicated to the forest maidens (Cô Sơn Trang) and a white raft dedicated to Cô Bơ, symbolizing transport for kings, lords, or the Mother Goddess on their journeys. These rafts are crafted from small tubes representing bamboo or reed, often with miniature figures depicted as rowers.

Another notable paper effigy is that of Ông Lốt, the serpent-like guardian spirit of the Four Palaces. Lốt symbolizes the deities who serve as attendants to the Mother Goddesses, guarding the underworld and the waters. Like the other effigies, Lốt is woven from bamboo strips, layered with paper, and decorated with scales, motifs, or stylized painted heads to convey solemnity and power.

In the ceremonial display, there are usually four Lốt figures in the colors red, blue, yellow, and white. The Lốt of the Water Palace often has three heads and nine tails (tam đầu cửu vĩ) or, in some versions, three heads and one tail, but it must always be white.

Another set of offerings associated with the Mountain Lord (Chúa Sơn Trang) includes the goddess figure herself, her two attendants (Chầu Quỳnh and Chầu Quế), and twelve mountain maidens (Mười Hai Cô Sơn Trang). Accompanying this group are ritual objects dedicated to the Mountain Domain: one white raft, one red boat, and one blue boat, together with a tray of sea shells (vỉ hải xảo) and a tray of miniature shoes (mâm hài).

Within the Four Palaces display, there are also five human effigies (ngũ mã hình nhân) — male or female depending on the gender of the celebrant — each wearing a crossed ceremonial sash (đai chéo) to indicate their status as spirit mediums, distinct from effigies used in funerary or expiatory rituals.

In Vietnamese folk belief, cô hồn — wandering or orphaned souls with no family or ancestral worship — are thought to roam the earth in search of sustenance and often gather at temples and festivals. Thus, during hầu đồng ceremonies, aside from offerings to deities, there is always a tray of paper offerings for wandering souls (chúng sinh). These include simple paper garments — short-sleeved shirts, long or short trousers — accompanied by paper coins and votive gold.

This practice reflects the Vietnamese ethos of compassion and remembrance: not only venerating saints and ancestors but also praying for the salvation of unfortunate spirits. It embodies a profound humanistic value at the heart of Vietnamese spirituality — a bond of solidarity and kindness that unites both the living and the departed.

Alongside the phát tấu petition paper (tờ sớ phát tấu) are often depictions of the “Ten Sacred Objects” (Thập Vật), which in earlier times were used as offerings for the deceased. These include:

Long xa (dragon chariot),

Phượng liễn (phoenix palanquin),

Tràng phan (precious banners),

Đại hình (substitute effigy),

Bạch tượng (white elephant),

Phi mã (flying horse),

Địa mã (earth horse),

Hiến mã (sacrificial horse),

Tòng giá (retinue followers),

and Ngân tiền, kim tiền (silver and gold currency).

Although intended for the spirit world, these Thập Vật paintings and paper effigies, simple yet refined, are imbued with Buddhist ideals and the aspiration for transcendence to the Pure Land — where souls are liberated and enjoy both spiritual and material abundance.

The aforementioned items constitute the standard votive objects used in Tứ Phủ rituals. However, in the Tái Phủ Mừng Đồng ceremony — the reaffirmation of the medium’s initiation — most mediums commission two or three additional effigies of the Mountain Lord (Chúa Sơn Trang) in red, white, and yellow, along with the twelve mountain maidens, trays of sea shells, shoes, and colored ribbons corresponding to each effigy.

If a medium cannot afford such an elaborate display, they must still prepare votive offerings equivalent in meaning to those used in the Mở Phủ Trình Đồng ceremony. This requirement is regarded as a sacred obligation prescribed by the divine order (nhà Thánh).

Paper Offerings in the Four Palaces (Tứ Phủ)

In the Mother Goddess belief system, the Tứ Phủ (Four Palaces) — comprising the Heaven Palace (Thiên phủ), Earth Palace (Địa phủ), Water Palace (Thoải phủ), and Mountain Palace (Nhạc phủ) — form the core cosmological structure through which the deities of Đạo Mẫu are organized and venerated.

Each palace possesses its own hierarchy of deities, with distinct colors, emblems, and ritual offerings. In all major ceremonies held at the Điện Mẫu, votive paper objects (đồ mã) corresponding to each palace are indispensable. These paper offerings serve not only as symbolic representations of the divine realm but also as ritual vehicles that facilitate communication between humans and the deities.

The paper offerings are prepared in advance by skilled artisans known as thợ mã (votive craftsmen). Each offering is crafted according to strict ritual codes and color symbolism, ensuring that they conform to the identity and function of the deity they honor. The offerings for the Four Palaces typically include the following sets:

The Heaven Palace, ruled by the Mother Goddess of Heaven (Mẫu Thượng Thiên), is associated with the color red, symbolizing divine authority and celestial power.

The votive offerings for this palace consist of:

A paper long đình (miniature temple pavilion),

A red paper horse with full harness and saddle,

A set of red ceremonial robes,

A mũ cửu long (nine-dragon crown),

A red palanquin (kiệu bát cống),

Paper attendants (thị giả), parasols, and flags.

Each of these elements represents the majesty of Heaven and the transcendental authority of the Mother Goddess.

The Earth Palace, ruled by the Mother Goddess of Earth (Mẫu Địa Tiên), governs fertility, prosperity, and the well-being of humankind. Its symbolic color is yellow, representing the earth element and imperial dignity.

Paper offerings for the Earth Palace include:

A yellow horse fully adorned with ornaments,

Sets of yellow ceremonial garments,

Hia (traditional court shoes),

Paper models of granaries, gold and silver bars, houses, and other symbols of abundance.

These offerings express gratitude to the Mother Goddess for blessings of harvest and livelihood, and they request continued stability and fertility for the community.

The Water Palace, ruled by the Mother Goddess of Water (Mẫu Thoải), presides over rivers, rain, and the realm of aquatic spirits. Its sacred color is white, signifying purity and the fluid nature of water.

The votive paper offerings for the Water Palace are distinguished by:

A white horse,

A set of white ceremonial garments,

Paper boats, nets, and miniature representations of fish and aquatic life,

Water jars, pearls, and treasures from the sea.

These symbolize the Mother’s dominion over rivers and seas, her role in granting favorable weather, and her power to avert natural disasters such as floods and storms.

The Mountain Palace is governed by the Mother Goddess of Mountains and Forests (Mẫu Thượng Ngàn), whose color is green, symbolizing vegetation, life, and growth.

Her votive offerings include:

A green horse,

Green ceremonial robes,

Paper models of forests, mountains, animals, and hunting tools,

Offerings of rice, fruit, and mountain produce.

These represent gratitude for natural resources and prayers for protection of forests, safe travels, and success in hunting and gathering.

Each set of paper offerings is arranged and displayed on the altar according to a strict hierarchical order, reflecting the cosmological principle of “Thượng thiên – Trung địa – Hạ thủy – Sơn lâm” (Heaven above, Earth in the middle, Water below, and Mountains surrounding). This arrangement is not merely decorative but embodies a profound cosmological structure linking the spiritual world with the human world.

The completion of these offerings marks the readiness of the temple to welcome the descent of the deities (giáng đồng) during the main ceremony of hầu đồng (spirit mediumship), where the deities are believed to manifest through the body of the medium.

In addition to the Tứ Phủ (Four Palaces) system, the Mother Goddess religion also includes rituals associated with the Tam Phủ (Three Palaces) — the Heaven Palace (Thiên phủ), Water Palace (Thoải phủ), and Mountain Palace (Nhạc phủ). These three realms represent the most ancient stratum of the Đạo Mẫu cosmology, preceding the later addition of the Earth Palace.

The paper offerings (đồ mã) prepared for ceremonies of the Tam Phủ closely resemble those of the Tứ Phủ, though the number of sets and the hierarchy of deities are slightly simplified.

In a Tam Phủ ceremony, votive paper objects are prepared in three sets, corresponding to the three Mother Goddesses (Tam Tòa Thánh Mẫu):

The Mother Goddess of Heaven (Mẫu Thượng Thiên) — represented by the color red, symbolizing authority and celestial fire.

The Mother Goddess of Water (Mẫu Thoải) — represented by white, signifying purity and adaptability.

The Mother Goddess of Mountains and Forests (Mẫu Thượng Ngàn) — represented by green, expressing vitality and nature.

Each set includes:

A horse, garments, and shoes in the corresponding color;

A crown (mũ), parasol (tán), and flag (cờ);

Offerings of paper gold, silver, flowers, fruits, and incense;

Symbolic objects suited to the deity’s domain (for instance, fish and shells for Mẫu Thoải, forest animals and trees for Mẫu Thượng Ngàn).

These votive items are placed before the altars and later burned as an offering to the divine realm, expressing gratitude, reverence, and supplication.

Beyond the great initiation and consecration rituals, numerous annual ceremonies are held at Mother Goddess temples throughout the year. Among these, the most important include:

The Opening of the Temple Ceremony (Khai Điện):

Usually conducted at the beginning of the lunar year, this ritual marks the reopening of the temple after the New Year period. Paper offerings used include new votive robes, paper horses, and symbolic objects to invite the deities to return to the altar and continue blessing the faithful.

The Commemoration of the Mother Goddesses’ Birthdays (Ngày Tiệc Thánh Mẫu):

Each Mẫu has her own festival day, during which votive offerings are elaborately prepared. For example, the festival of Mẫu Thượng Thiên features offerings dominated by red and gold tones, while Mẫu Thoải’s day emphasizes white paper items shaped like fish, boats, and water jars.

The Ceremony of Thanksgiving (Tạ Lễ):

This is a form of ritual gratitude, performed after a person’s wish or vow (lễ cầu) has been fulfilled. Paper offerings here tend to be simpler but highly personalized, such as paper replicas of the devotee’s home, boat, or items symbolizing the blessing they received (e.g., wealth, peace, or recovery).

The Ceremony for Good Fortune (Lễ Cầu Phúc – Cầu An):

Conducted at the beginning or midpoint of the year, this ritual asks for peace, good health, and prosperity. Paper offerings include models of gold and silver ingots, rice jars, fruits, and sometimes paper effigies of household members or livestock, all symbolizing harmony and abundance.

The Ceremony for Departed Spirits (Lễ Giải Hạn – Cầu Siêu):

This is a ceremony for the salvation of wandering souls and the release of misfortune. Paper offerings for this rite consist of human-shaped effigies, symbolic passports (thẻ độ), and boats for ferrying spirits to the other world.

In all these ceremonies, paper offerings act as both a medium of devotion and a symbolic form of communication between the human and spiritual realms. Each votive object embodies a wish, a prayer, or an act of reverence transformed into tangible form through artistry and ritual discipline.

The Arrangement and Burning of Paper Offerings

The arrangement and burning of đồ mã (ritual paper offerings) in the Mother Goddess temple (điện thờ Mẫu) are processes of both ritual precision and symbolic meaning. They mark the culmination of the ceremony, when the material representations of devotion are transformed into spiritual essence through fire — the bridge between the human world and the divine.

Before the ceremony begins, paper offerings are carefully arranged upon the altars (ban thờ) according to the hierarchical order of the deities and the cosmological structure of the Four Palaces (Tứ Phủ).

The uppermost altar is reserved for the Three or Four Mother Goddesses (Tam Tòa Thánh Mẫu or Tứ Phủ Thánh Mẫu). Offerings here include the most elaborate sets — paper crowns, robes, parasols, palanquins, and horses, each corresponding to the color and symbolism of its respective palace (red for Heaven, yellow for Earth, white for Water, and green for Mountains).

The middle altars are dedicated to the Mandarins (Quan Lớn), Princes (Ông Hoàng), Ladies (Chầu Bà), Mistresses (Cô), and Pages (Cậu). Offerings here are smaller in size but equally detailed: miniature palanquins, horses, parasols, ceremonial garments, and paper money (vàng mã). Each deity receives the appropriate items according to their rank and function within the pantheon.

At the lowest level of the altar, offerings are prepared for ancestral spirits, guardians, and attendants — paper robes, incense, rice, wine, and humble tokens of daily life such as paper houses or coins.

Every item must be placed in precise order — larger items behind, smaller ones in front; heavier offerings at the center, symbolic objects along the sides. This spatial arrangement mirrors the cosmic order (trật tự vũ trụ) recognized in Vietnamese folk cosmology, where harmony in ritual placement ensures harmony between heaven and earth.

After the completion of prayers, invocations, and thanksgiving, the ceremony reaches its final stage: the burning of the paper offerings (lễ hóa mã).

The act of burning transforms material objects into immaterial blessings. According to folk belief, the smoke and flame carry the essence of the offerings to the spiritual realm, delivering the devotee’s prayers and gratitude to the deities.

The burning is performed with solemnity and order. The officiant or temple guardian (thủ nhang) lights the offerings in groups, beginning with those dedicated to the higher deities, followed by offerings for subordinate spirits, and finally for the gia tiên (ancestors). During this process, attendants continuously chant invocations and offer bows, maintaining the connection between worshippers and deities until the last ember fades.

In major ceremonies, such as mở phủ or đại lễ Tứ Phủ, the burning site is often constructed in front of the temple or at a nearby courtyard. It is common to see large paper palanquins, horses, or miniature temples being carried outside and burned amidst incense smoke and rhythmic drumming — a vivid and sacred spectacle blending sound, color, and belief.

The timing of the burning is also considered important. Devotees often wait until the ceremony’s energy (linh khí) has reached its peak — after the final invocation or trance dance (giá đồng) — before lighting the offerings. This ensures that the blessings are fully received and that the deities’ presence sanctifies the act of transformation.

3. Symbolic Meaning

In the worldview of Đạo Mẫu, burning paper offerings is not an act of destruction but of spiritual transmutation. Fire is seen as the element that mediates between visible and invisible worlds — it purifies, elevates, and returns all things to their spiritual origin.

Thus, the ritual of hóa mã represents the conclusion of a sacred exchange between humans and deities. Through it, the devotee’s sincerity (thành tâm) is manifested; the offering’s material form dissolves, leaving only its spiritual essence. The act embodies the principle that “material things perish, but faith endures” — an idea deeply rooted in Vietnamese religious thought.

The system of ritual paper offerings (đồ mã) within the worship of the Mother Goddesses (Đạo Mẫu) reflects not only the visual splendor of Vietnamese folk belief but also its profound spiritual philosophy. Through votive paper — humble in material yet rich in meaning — the faithful express reverence, gratitude, and aspiration toward the sacred powers that govern nature and destiny. Each paper object, from the simplest gold leaf to the grandest palanquin, carries symbolic value. Horses represent divine mobility and communication; robes and crowns denote heavenly authority; boats and nets speak of livelihood and prosperity; houses and coins embody the continuity of family life. Together, they form a microcosm of both worldly existence and the divine hierarchy that sustains it.

Beyond their ritual utility, đồ mã also serve as artistic creations, embodying the craftsmanship and imagination of local artisans (thợ mã). The meticulous work of folding, cutting, and assembling paper offerings demonstrates a unique synthesis of aesthetics, devotion, and folk cosmology. Each votive object thus functions as a bridge between art and faith — a tangible representation of intangible belief. The act of offering and burning đồ mã — far from being mere superstition — reveals a sophisticated worldview in which the material and spiritual realms coexist in dynamic exchange. To “send” paper offerings through fire is to affirm the continuity between life and the afterlife, the visible and the invisible, human aspiration and divine benevolence. In this sense, the ritual paper offerings in the Mother Goddess temple are not only instruments of worship but also vessels of cultural memory. They preserve centuries-old perceptions of the universe, moral relationships, and human destiny — embodying the enduring Vietnamese conviction that spiritual harmony sustains worldly peace. Through the preservation and study of these practices, we not only safeguard a living tradition but also deepen our understanding of Vietnamese religious identity — one rooted in compassion, reciprocity, and the poetic dialogue between heaven, earth, and humanity.